Psychology for Missionaries

Figure 6:1 Motivation from a Christian perspective.

HUMANS

Created . . . . . . . . . . . in the. . . . . . . . . Image of God

Like Animals Like God

Overt Behavior. . . . . . Definition. . . . . .Mental Processes

Understand. . . . . . . . . Goals. . . . . . . . .Make people

Creation like God

Psychoanalysis. . . . . . Systems. . . . . . .Humanistic

Behaviorism Psychology

Experimental . . . . . . .Methods . . . . . . Descriptive

Physical. . . . . . . . . . .The Person . . . . Spiritual

Immaturity. . . . . . . . .Development. . .Maturity

Sensation . . . . . . . . . .Awareness . . . .Perception

(States of Consciousness)

Learning . . . . . . . . . .Intellect . . . . . .Cognition

(Memory)

Biological . . . . . . . .Motivation. . . . .Cognitive

Biological Motivation

Many biological motives must be fulfilled for survival, such as the need for oxygen which must be satisfied (or death results in a matter minutes) and the need for water which also must be met (or death results in days). However, this chapter concentrates on only two. These two motives are hunger (or death results in months) and sex (or humanity becomes extinct in decades).

Hunger

In order to survive people must eat enough so that their energy use does not exceed their caloric intake over long periods of time. Daily variations in the amount they eat may not cause many immediate ill effects, but in the long run there must be a balance between intake and expenditure. If there is no balance, the person becomes obese or starves.

Factors to Consider. Many variables influence how much a person eats. Some of these involve topics from earlier chapters such as the physiological, sensory, and learned ones.

Physiological. Anatomical and physiological factors play a prominent role in biological motivations. Early theories proposed that hunger was due to sensations coming from the body, particularly from contractions of the stomach. However, psychologists found that cutting nerves between the stomach and the brain did not decrease food intake. In fact, removing the stomach entirely did not decrease intake. Theories emphasizing events in the central nervous system then began to dominate psychology. One part of the brain, the hypothalamus, seemed to play an important role. Destruction of one part of it resulted in animals or people who overate and gained weight rapidly, then maintained the new higher weight. Destruction of another part resulted in animals which refused to eat at all and died unless kept alive by tube feeding. Although they then recovered, they never became completely normal. More recently psychologists have shifted emphasis from the hypothalamus itself to pathways passing through it. Furthermore, psychologists once again see peripheral factors as playing a role. The liver apparently monitors the body's fuel supply and sends information to the brain, and hormones released from the intestines (e.g. CCK) or fat cells (leptin) play a role in regulating appetite.

Sensory. Taste and smell obviously affect our eating. The odor or first taste of good food increases the flow of saliva, the secretion of insulin, and the movement of muscles in the digestive tract. When food tastes better, people increase their intake, and when it tastes worse, they decrease their intake. When changes in texture make it more or less pleasant, people increase or decrease their intake in response. Tastes and textures considered good or bad differ widely from culture to culture, and missionaries must be careful not to insult the people they are trying to reach. These sensory factors controlling food intake seem obvious, but even the sight of food will start people eating. This is especially true in obese people who are not hungry. They eat less than normal persons when food is not in sight, but more when larger quantities of appetizing food are set before them.

Learned. Our food preferences are greatly influenced by learning. Fried grasshoppers or live termites do not sound very appetizing to most Americans. However, if they think in technical terms about what they actually eat, their food does not sound much better. A slice of buttered toast is really ground embryos (of plants) that have been heated very hot (baked), cut up and burned again (toasted). Then the secretions of the mammary glands of the bovine ruminant (milk from cows) are allowed to separate, one part is stirred until it hardens (butter), and it is spread on the burned embryos. Each culture has a “list” of foods that are considered good as well as ones they consider inedible.

Potential Problems. Problems can occur in the form of eating too much, too little, the wrong foods, or some combination of the three. Some people, such as alcoholics, eat all they want, but still suffer from malnutrition.

Eating too much. Eating too much may range from people eating more than they need and becoming slightly overweight to people eating huge amounts and becoming obese with an excessive amounts of fat on their bodies. Some people eat so much that it becomes an eating disorder, bulimia nervosa. They typically eat in binges and then do something to compensate for the eating, such as vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. MedicineNet has more information on bulimia at http://www.medicinenet.com/bulimia/article.htm.

Though bulimia occurs in only a small part of the population, obesity is very common. Obesity may not only make people socially unattractive, but also it may lead to a variety of physical disorders. Our society prizes thinness, but obesity is prevalent. The Centers for Disease Control reports that in the first decade of the twenty-first century a third of American adults are overweight (but not obese) and another third are obese (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/overwt.htm). The World Health Organization notes that this is a worldwide problem with more than a billion adults overweight and nearly a third of those are obese (http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/). This means that wherever missionaries are serving, they are likely to see overweight people.

Of course, we ask why people are overweight, and the simple, obvious answer is that people get fat because they eat more calories than they burn. Then the question becomes, Why do they eat so much? This question has several answers.

· They may have a physical problem such as brain damage or a glandular disorder, although this is only about 5%.

· They may have been overfed as infants, and overfeeding predisposed them to obesity.

· Their culture may view obesity as a sign of wealth or even health.

· They may be eating on the basis of external cues such as the sight or smell of food or because others are eating.

· They may have just developed a habit of overeating.

· Most people tend to gain weight with advancing age because as their metabolism decreases they tend to reduce their activity but continue their former eating habits.

In a society where food is scarce, most people have little trouble with obesity. However, in an affluent society many individuals have problems with what the Bible calls "self-control" or "gluttony." We hear very little preaching or teaching on the subject of gluttony today, perhaps because so many preachers and teachers are obese themselves. The apostle Paul talks about being temperate in all things and bringing his body into subjection. Unfortunately, "temperance" has come to be associated only with consumption of alcoholic beverages, even though it has a much broader meaning in Scripture. We must be aware that gluttony is not only a psychological disorder, but a sinful behavior as well.

Americans spend billions of dollars a year on diet aids of one type or another. Unfortunately the success rate of these weight loss programs is very low. The average long-term outcome from diets is a gain of 105 percent of the weight lost. That is, individuals end up weighing more than when they started to diet. Such people typically diet repeatedly. Unfortunately, this losing and gaining of weight may damage the cardiovascular system, so the person would be better off remaining fat. It is more important to change regular eating habits than to lose weight quickly on some exotic diet.

Some of the weight-loss group programs also have moderate success. Overeaters Anonymous (http://www.oa.org), Take Off Pounds Sensibly (http://www.tops.org), and Weight Watchers (http://www.weightwatchers.com) provide group pressure on members to lose weight. They give public praise for loss, and some of them give public disapproval for failure to lose. Studies have shown that the average weight loss for members remaining in these groups is 14 pounds. The problem is that more than two-thirds of those who begin drop out of the programs within two years. The most important thing people can do is to find a program that has a lifestyle they can follow the rest of their lives

Eating too little. The opposite of bulimia nervosa is a disorder in which individuals fail to eat enough over a long period of time, anorexia nervosa. This disorder is found primarily among adolescent girls and young women. Although the disorder was once quite rare, it has increased in recent years. Since some anorexics literally starve themselves to death, some type of therapy is necessary immediately.

The most dramatic physical evidence of anorexia nervosa is weight loss. Anorexics beginning at a normal weight may drop to a weight of only fifty or sixty pounds. This disorder usually begins with a period of dieting, common among adolescent girls in our culture. However, anorexics have distorted body image (seeing themselves as fat), develop a great fear of becoming obese. Even though they have protruding ribs and claw-like hands, they continue to eat little and exercise vigorously to reduce even more. In the early stages, some have normal appetites and may even become preoccupied with food. They may cook elaborate meals for others and go through periods of bulimia, followed by self-induced vomiting so that they will not get fat. Menstrual periods stop and weight loss begins. As the disorder progresses, appetite for food disappears, sexual desire disappears, and the breasts and hips shrink to the point where the patient, when clothed, is unrecognizable as a female.

Anorexia nervosa is much rarer than obesity, but just as difficult to treat. Hospitalized patients frequently respond to treatment but relapse when discharged. Long- term studies indicate that more than 10 percent of the anorexics starve themselves to death and another 25 percent to 50 percent have recurrent episodes. One problem is that they see themselves as fat and are determined to lose weight. Another problem is that the appetite actually disappears, and then the person becomes too weak to eat. For more information on anorexia see the article on MedicineNet at http://www.medicinenet.com/anorexia_nervosa/article.htm.

With both overeating and undereating we must consider the God-like cognitive factors. Learning techniques using reinforcement bring about only temporary changes because the reinforcement must be maintained. If we can bring about cognitive changes, we may be able to bring about lasting changes.

Eating poor diet. Even when an abundance of food is available, perhaps especially with such abundance, people may eat poor diets. In such cultures, many foods are refined and this removes some of the essential nutrients. Then sugar, salt, MSG, and fat is added to make the foods taste better and sold in many fast food establishments for people in a hurry. Christians can make a contribution by suggesting better diets. In Chapter 1 we found that Daniel ran an experiment several thousand years ago showing that vegetables and water are better for people than are rich foods and wine (Daniel 1).

Since gluttony is also a sin, Christian missionaries need to bring a Christian perspective to bear on eating. Paul wrote, “Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit…?” He pointed out that the Holy Spirit is in his people and that Jesus paid the price for them; he finished by saying, “Therefore honor God with your body” (1 Corinthians 6:19-20).

Many people who would be appalled at someone damaging the church building made of wood or stone where God does not live are themselves guilty of destroying his temple themselves.

The Bible has much to say about food. During creation God said that he gave us (Genesis 1:29)

· Every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth;

· Every tree that has fruit with seed in it.

Even food guides such as the United States Department of Agriculture Food Guide Pyramid (http://www.mypyramid.gov/) have grains, vegetables, and fruits at their base, allowing other foods in much smaller quantities. Although one does not need to keep every ceremonial law found in scripture (Acts 10:9-23), it still has some excellent advice on food.

For further information about specific topics on hunger click on the following links to parts of Chapter 9 in Dewey’s on-line text.

Sexual Motivation

Nearly everyone discussing biological motivation includes the sexual drive but hastens to add that it is different from the other biological drives. It is not vital to the survival of the individual (but it is to the human race); it uses energy rather than restores it; and there are many restrictions (when, where, and with whom) on how it may be satisfied. These restrictions are not only cultural ones, but they may have moral and health implications as well.

Factors to consider. Sexual motivation is influenced by many things, but we will mention only the ones related to topics already discussed in this book.

Physiological. Two physiological factors have been implicated in sexual motivation: hormonal and neural. Hormonal factors are extremely important in determining sexual motivation in animals, but they play a relatively minor role in adult humans. Although some studies have found a small positive correlation between the level of estrogen in the bloodstream and likelihood of intercourse in women, other studies have found a negative correlation. Although castration before puberty may prevent copulation in males, most studies show little decrease in sexual motivation in adult males following castration-unless they think it will have an effect. Surprisingly, the one hormone that does affect sexual motivation in both men and women is testosterone (secreted by the adrenals as well as the testes). As long as there is a minimal level in the bloodstream, sexual motivation will be normal. These hormones do not elicit particular sexual behaviors but produce a readiness to respond to sexual stimuli.

Neural factors are very important for sexual behavior in both men and women, although we do not have the same experimental data we have for hormones. In general, the more similar animals are to humans, the more neural mechanisms influence behavior and the less hormones influence it. Both the hypothalamus and the cortex are important in human sexual behavior. Chemicals at the synapses are also involved, but their role is far from clear at the moment.

Sensory. Sensation is obviously related to sexual motivation. As was noted previously, hormones produce a state of readiness to respond to sexual stimuli. Of course, almost any stimulus can be sexually arousing, depending on the experiences of the individual. However, visual stimuli have traditionally been the most sexually arousing to the male. This is the reason for the popularity of books, magazines, and movies capitalizing on presenting the nude female body or people in various sexual postures. Recently, more women are reporting being sexually aroused by visual stimuli. Traditionally, touch has been the most erotic stimulus for women. This is the reason for the popularity of petting, in which the male manually stimulates the various erogenous zones of the female, leading to her sexual arousal. The role of odors varies between persons.

Learned. Learning plays a very important role in sexual behavior. Although orgasmic responses are reflexively controlled, other sexual behaviors must be learned. This is the reason for the popularity of marriage manuals and books about sexual techniques. People do not innately know the sexual behaviors expected of them. These behaviors are different in different cultures. Each culture has its own set of stimuli which are considered to be erotic, and members of that culture learn sexual responses to them. For example, in some cultures the sight of a woman's breast is considered highly erotic, while in others it is not. In some cultures the smell of perspiration is considered highly erotic, while in others it may be considered offensive, so members of that culture do all they can to remove it.

Potential Problems. There is a great variety of disorders of the sexual drive. Although there have been great changes recently in what our culture considers normal sexual behavior, the list of sexual disorders remains long (http://web4health.info/en/answers/sex-menu.htm; http://www.depression-guide.com/sexual-disorders.htm). Rather than trying to cover many of these, we will just consider sexual stress and maintaining sexual purity.

Sexual stress. Suppose that two missionaries have been working together for several months, but during the last three weeks they have been spending every available minute on the big project. They have eaten working lunches together and continued working after the others went home for the night. They realize that they are beginning to look forward to going to work more than they ever have before. Certainly they couldn’t be falling in love, could they? They are missionaries, so sexual immorality, adultery, homosexual activity, or incest are not possible, are they? Why do they feel this way? What can they do to prevent this from happening? Here are answers to some of these questions.

Missionaries? Could it happen to them, missionaries? Of course, it could. They are human, aren’t they? It is a natural human tendency to grow to like people with whom we spend time, so much so that even people taken hostage often grow to like their captors, and the captors grow to like their hostages. It is even more likely that missionaries will like people with whom they are working and that liking may become sexual attraction. People can gradually “slide” into sexual sin over a period of time. An example of this is found in the case of Amnon and Tamar where Amnon became obsessed with her “in the course of time” (2 Samuel 13).

Although it is rare, it can be “love (lust) at first sight.” In this case people can “fall” into sexual sin rapidly. An example of this is David and Bathsheba. Rather than being out leading his army where he should have been, David stayed in Jerusalem. Having trouble sleeping, he went for a walk on his roof and noticed a woman bathing. Rather than looking away, he sent someone to find out who she was. Instead of leaving it at knowing who she was, when he found out her husband was out fighting in the army, he had her come over. Then “he slept with her” (2 Samuel 11).

Immorality or adultery? Could missionaries get pulled into immorality or adultery? Of course they could, and the “slide” into it usually begins in harmless, innocent ways. For example, field directors are responsible to show attractive new single missionaries around. Or, a missionary feels sorry for the new missionaries who have no place to stay and invites them to live with him or her temporarily. Or, while talking with a long-term missionary friend a missionary finds out that the friend feels neglected at home, so he or she tries to give the friend some extra attention. Before they realize it, the two of them are sharing deep things, and this intimacy leads to increasing time together, and finally adultery.

It happens not only with other missionaries, but with nationals as well. It happens to both men and women. It happens with young and old. Missionaries who think they are invulnerable to sexual sin are actually the most vulnerable. 1 Corinthians 10:12 describes our vulnerability, but verse 13 promises God’s faithfulness in providing a way of escape. Attraction to other people is very likely to happen, and if missionaries do not know what to do, they may well find themselves in a position like King David, trying to cover up their sexual sin and causing serious problems for their entire family, field, and mission agency.

Homosexual activity? Could two missionaries begin a homosexual relationship? Yes, they can, and it can happen with either men or women, married or single, young or old. As a result of isolation and loneliness, people living together with same-sex partners may form emotionally dependent relationships. These rather exclusive relationships may become possessive and lead to physical activity with sexual elements. An embrace may become more than just comforting.

This may progress into homosexual activity, so that the people involved have progressed into a sinful relationship. But even if it is stopped before reaching this level, confusion, guilt feelings, and the relationship itself need to be carefully examined.

Why me? You may ask, “Am I, as a missionary, more susceptible to sexual sin than someone back ‘home’?” You may be because of some of the facts of missionary life. That is why we talk about “sexual stress.”

· High stress. Stress and anxiety tend to make many men want sex, but many women want cuddling and rest. When refused, either may think the other does not care. Cultural stress decreases the control of sexual urges, especially in those who had problems at “home.”

· Lack of privacy. You may live in a “goldfish bowl” where nearly everything you do is watched and talked about. There may be no locks on the door, and sound may carry far outside the bedroom, even outside the house.

· Cultural taboos. You may live in a culture where the expectations for husband-wife behavior are quite different from your home country. You may not be able to display any affection in public, even to hold hands.

· More separation. The very nature of your work may mean the spouse has to be gone several nights a week. He or she may be tempted while away, and the partner tempted at home as well.

· Need for affection and touch. We all need touch, especially when stressed, and you may be basically alone where you are with no one to just put an arm around you in difficult times. You have left your support group behind and may not have developed a new one.

You need to remember that you are far from home, behind “enemy lines,” and the enemy will use whatever advantage he has.

How can I prevent it? Although sexual sin occurs among missionaries, it is not unavoidable. Here are some things you can do to make it less likely.

· Acknowledge your vulnerability. Until you do this, you will not be motivated to do anything to prevent it.

· Avoid triggering situations. Know what leads you to sexual temptations. If visual stimuli do, be careful what you see on TV, the computer monitor, etc. (King David needed to stay off roofs). If it is touch, be careful about physical contact. Once you begin the sexual slide, temptation becomes stronger the further you go.

· Pray. You pray. Ask others to pray. Pray with your spouse and ask your spouse to pray for you. You have a support group back “home,” so ask them to pray.

· Communicate with your spouse and regularly fulfill each other’s sexual needs. Talk regularly and frequently about how you feel about your relationship with each other.

· Have an accountability relationship. You also need a support group physically present who will look you in the eye and ask you regularly (weekly, if possible) about the purity of your sexual life. Remember that your capacity for self-deceit is great.

· Make a commitment to God. Read Leviticus 18-20 and 1 Corinthians 5-7. Note that they encourage you to be holy, and the way to be holy is to enjoy sex with your spouse and avoid it with anyone else. Make that commitment.

· Practice the presence of the omnipotent God. You may think that no one knows about what you are downloading from the Internet, but remember that God is there. Not only is he there, but he wants us to be holy and promises to strengthen us (Ephesians 3:16).

For more information about missionaries and sexual stress, http://www.missionarycare.com/brochures/br_sexualstress.htm.

Sexual Purity. While watching TV, one missionary noticed that he picked up on something he saw or heard, and his thoughts become more sexual. Another missionary noticed how handsome one of the men at the office was, and she began imagining… They were taken by surprise because missionaries like them are so deeply committed to Christ. They are on the frontlines of spiritual battles, taking Christ to people who have never heard. Such missionaries certainly would not get into sexual sin, would they?

Of course, they would. For centuries military personnel in any conflict have been notorious for their sexual immorality. Engaged in physical/ideological battles in strange cultures far from family, friends, community, and church, they engage in sexual exploits. Why would you expect any less temptation for you, as you engage in the spiritual battles against the forces of evil? You are lonely. With social support absent, emotional needs unmet, and living in a strange culture with greater sexual freedom than at home, why would Satan not take advantage of you as well?

Same-Old. Same-Old. New-New! The Bible specifies three intertwined sources of temptation, commonly called “the world, the flesh, and the devil.” Two of these are relatively unchanged since Paul wrote the letter to the Ephesians, but one has changed dramatically during the last century,

· The devil, “…the ruler of the kingdom of the air” (Ephesians 2:2). As he has done for thousands of years, at some times the devil goes around as a roaring lion looking for someone to devour, but more often relative to sexual temptation he slips in almost unnoticed, sowing small seeds that will grow into sinful behavior.

· The flesh, “…gratifying the cravings of our sinful nature and following its desires and thoughts” (Ephesians 2:3). Missionaries are tempted simply because they are human. As James puts it, “Each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed” (1:14). Human nature has not changed over the years, so people today are tempted just as they were when James wrote those words 200 years ago.

· The world “…when you followed the ways of this world” (Ephesians 2:2). The writer to the Romans (12: 2) warned to “not conform any longer to the pattern of this world.” The “ways of the world” and the “pattern of the world” have not changed relative to sexual temptation since Paul’s time. However these sexual temptations literally come through the air and the walls as the “prince of the power of the air” sends them into missionaries’ homes through radios, TV satellite receivers, email, and Internet connections.

The devil and the flesh are relatively unchanged, but technology in our world is new. Even after the invention of printing, missionaries could be quite effective in keeping obscene, pornographic, and suggestive material out of their homes. However, most missionaries today are required to have at least email, if not Internet connections. Since about 40% of all email is spam and about 30% of all spam is pornographic, about one in every eight emails is pornographic, and some of it will get through even the best filters. Filters block many pornographic sites on the Internet, but some still gets through—and pop-ups may suddenly appear on your screen at any time.

What can missionaries do in this new world to maintain sexual purity? As is so often the case, the answer to resisting temptation is in what we call the Great Commandment, originating when the Law was given to Moses and cited by Jesus himself.

Love God. The most important thing missionaries can do to maintain sexual purity is to love God with their whole beings, their heart, soul, strength, and mind (Luke 10, Deuteronomy 6). Relationship to God must take top priority.

· Have a daily, consistent devotional time to maintain relationship with God.

· Make a specific commitment to God to live a holy life free of sexual sin. Write this commitment down and place it where you will see it daily (desk, mirror, etc.)

· Study, meditate on, memorize, and apply Scripture on this topic.

Love Others. The second most important thing missionaries can do to maintain sexual purity is to love others (Luke 10, Leviticus 19). Love relationships with others must have a high priority as well. Relative to sexual purity this would include the following.

· Learn the cues in their host countries that signal sexual purity and sexual availability. These include such things as dress, eye contact, posture, gestures, and so forth.

· Be aware that even within cultures people vary widely on the meaning of touch.

· Be especially alert when in “high risk” situations, such as being alone with another person, spending prolonged time working with another person, and so forth.

· Meet weekly an accountability partner (or group) to answer specific questions about sexual purity.

· If married, make relationships with spouses of highest priority (of all people).

· If married, make the same commitment to spouses (relative to sexual purity) that you make to God.

· If married, be intentional about meeting the emotional, physical, and spiritual needs of your spouse.

Love Yourself. The third most important thing is to love themselves, to care for themselves as they care for others.

· Accept your own vulnerability. 1 Corinthians 10:12 reminds us that if we think we are standing firm, we must be careful or we will fall.

· List (actually write them down) sexual things you will not do, such as those found in Leviticus 18-20.

· List sexual things that may be permissible but not beneficial, things that may master you as in 1 Corinthians 6. Concentrate on “renewing your mind” as described in Colossians 3 and in Ephesians 4.

· Avoid danger zones for you. If you know that you are tempted visually, do not watch videos or TV shows that you know will contain graphic sexual images. If you know that you are tempted verbally, do not visit Internet chat rooms or read explicit romance novels.

· Develop an early warning system to increase your awareness of problems coming. Knowing that you will be talking with an accountability partner is likely to make you more aware of danger zones. If you are married and feel the slightest attraction for someone other than your spouse, take action immediately.

· Develop a plan for combating temptations which will occur in spite of your attempts to avoid them.

Joseph was a handsome, single, young man with hormones raging (just past puberty) when he was taken to a different culture. When his boss’ wife asked him to have sex with her, he politely refused and gave her good reasons for his refusal. He refused her repeated requests. One time when he went to work and they were alone in the house, she grabbed his coat and asked for sex, but he left his coat and ran out of the house. You can maintain your sexual purity too, but you may have to run from a person, or your computer! For more information on maintaining sexual purity see http://www.missionarycare.com/brochures/br_sexualpurity.htm.

For further information about specific topics in sexual motivation click on the following links to parts of Chapter 16 in Dewey’s on-line text.

Other Biological Motives

We have many other biological motives. They do not have as great an impact on our lives and behavior as to the needs for food and sex. As physiological needs, we are often unaware of the ways our bodies meet these needs until what the body does automatically does not fully meet them. Here are a few examples.

· Need for air. We do not have to think about breathing most of the time because we do so automatically. However, if something prevents us from breathing, within seconds we become keenly aware of the need and take whatever action restores our ability to breathe.

· Need for water. We do not have to “remember” to drink most of the time because we get thirsty, look for water, and drink it. However, if no water is available, within a day or so, we will be consciously aware of it and driven to do nearly anything to get water.

· Need to maintain constant temperature. We usually do not have to think about this because our bodies perspire, dilate or constrict blood vessels, and make us shiver to maintain the temperature. However, when we shiver enough in the cold or feel the heat in the warm, we are likely to move to shelter or change clothing.

· Need to sleep. No one has to tell us when it is time to sleep, we just fall asleep. However, when we do not get enough, we become aware of it and take action to stay awake if we want to—or to get more comfortable if we want to sleep.

· Need to avoid pain. We have an unconditioned response to withdraw from pain. However, if that does not remove the pain, we take voluntary action to remove the painful stimulus.

The list of such needs can go on and on, but most of these needs are automatically monitored by our bodies themselves.

For further information about specific topics on other biological motives click on the following links to parts of Chapter 9 in Dewey’s on-line text.

Cognitive Motivation

Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow developed a broad theory of motivation and recognized that people at their best were God-like. Writing about people having “peak” experiences in Toward a Psychology of Being, he said, “The person at the peak is godlike not only in senses that I have touched upon already but in certain other ways as well…” (p. 92). As a result of growing up in a Jewish home, he developed a worldview similar to a Christian one. One of his major contributions to psychology was his hierarchy of motives (http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Biography.asp).

Hierarchy of Motives

Maslow suggested that there were two types of motivation; deficiency motivation and growth motivation. A deficiency motive (need) is inactive in the healthy person, is preferred over other satisfactions, causes illness when not satisfied, cures illness when restored, and prevents illness when present. These needs are organized in a hierarchy so that as each need is met, a higher need emerges.

Physiological needs. At the lowest and broadest level are the physiological needs discussed earlier in this chapter. These include such things as the need for air, water, food, shelter, sleep, and sex. When these needs are not met, they are dominant. For example, when being choked so that no air can reach their lungs, people think only about getting air, not about their self-esteem.

Safety needs. When the physiological needs are met, the safety needs (the other deficiency needs) emerge. Individuals now seek an orderly, predictable, organized world. If the physiological needs are met, the unmet safety needs become dominant. People need a predictable world so that they feel safe, secure, and stable. For example, even if missionaries are well fed and have adequate housing, they are not thinking about realizing their potential if they live in fear of robbery, assault, and political turmoil. Maslow had these safety needs at the second level of his hierarchy as follows.

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Social needs. After the deficiency needs are met, the growth needs emerge. The first ones are the social needs of love and belongingness. The needs to love and be loved and to belong and be accepted become dominant. Missionaries who feel safe and secure are probably not thinking about living up to their potential if they have no close friends whom they love and with whom they belong. People want to become part of groups to avoid loneliness and alienation. This is the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy as follows.

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Esteem needs. After the social needs are met, the esteem needs emerge. People who feel secure and feel like they belong soon become concerned about their own self-esteem and about receiving recognition from others. The needs to achieve, to be and feel competent, and to be respected by others become dominant. Missionaries at this level need to feel like they are winning people to Christ and making disciples. This is the fourth level of Maslow’s hierarchy as follows.

ESTEEM NEEDS

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Self-Actualization. Finally, after the esteem needs are met, the self-actualization needs appear. People now want to live up to their fullest potential. Missionaries want to become more and more God-like personally and fulfill their unique contribution to God’s kingdom.

These people are now motivated primarily by moving toward self-actualization, toward realizing their potential, fulfilling their mission in life, knowing and accepting themselves, and becoming more unified. Maslow found these mature people to have a superior perception of reality; increased acceptance of self, others, and nature; more spontaneity; problem-centering; desire for privacy; autonomy; freshness of appreciation; creativeness; peak experiences; improved interpersonal relations; identification with humanity; and a more democratic character structure.

He drew up a list of the attributes of these people, which he called B-values (being values, growth needs, or meta-needs). He noted that these are the attributes assigned to most conceptions of a god and that the person is godlike. As Christians, we agree that these are the attributes of God, but God is the original and humans are the copies. It is amazing that a non-Christian studying the finest human beings he could find would come up with such a complete list of the attributes of God. Of course, this is the reverse of the process we used in chapter 2, where we looked at the attributes of God to see which of them we could see in humans.

Not only is Maslow's list a list of the basic attributes of God, but Christians are commanded to be like God in many of these ways. B-values Maslow listed included wholeness, perfection, completion, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, beauty, goodness, uniqueness, effortlessness, playfulness, truth, honesty, reality, and self-sufficiency. Although most of these are obviously attributes of God, two of them need further elaboration. By "playfulness," Maslow does not mean frivolousness, but having a sense of humor or joy, and God certainly has that. The one attribute Maslow found that is not to be characteristic of us is self-sufficiency. Our sufficiency is of God, so our attempts at self-justification and self-righteousness always fail. Of course, this does not mean we are not to take care of ourselves, or that we are not responsible for our behavior. It simply means we cannot do it all on our own.

ACTUALIZATION

ESTEEM NEEDS

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Peak Experiences. Though they were not a part of his hierarchy, Maslow wrote much about “peak” experiences. These ecstatic or spiritual experiences are special times during which people sense that they are a part of something far larger than they are. Several of these experiences are described in Scripture.

Paul, early missionary, describes an experience in which a man was caught up into the third heaven, paradise, where he heard indescribable things. He was so confused that he was not even sure if he was in his body or out of it. He did not even feel like he was permitted to talk about what had happened (2 Corinthians 12:2-5).

This may happen to several people at the same time. Peter, James, and John were on a mountain with Jesus when something incredible happened. Again there was some confusion about what happened and the order in which it happened. One account of it says that the men were very sleepy, and another says that they fell to the ground, terrified. However, in all accounts, they said it was good to be there, and they did not talk about it (Matthew 17:2; Luke 9:29).

Peak experiences may occur in everyday life even in the absence of any unusual circumstances. For example, one lady had a peak experience just sitting at the breakfast table filled with dirty dishes one morning after her husband and children had left for work and school. When she sat down, she began thinking about the wonderful relationship with her husband and the success ofher children in every aspect of their lives. She had an ecstatic, spiritual experience of basking in God’s love for her.

For further information about specific topics in Maslow’s theory click on the following links to parts of Chapter 9 in Dewey’s on-line text.

Love and Loneliness

Maslow placed the social needs, love and belongingness in the middle of his hierarchy. These two topics are of great importance to Christian missionaries and need further discussion.

Love. Before the last half of the twentieth century psychologists said little about love. About 1980 I checked the indexes of 39 general psychology textbooks by different authors. I found that 56 percent of them did not consider the topic of love important enough to include in the index. Twenty percent of the texts treated love by comparing it to love in animals or in terms of sexual love, and another ten percent treated it as an emotion. Love was most frequently discussed in terms of Harlow's work with love in monkeys. Fifteen percent of the texts dealt with love in terms of Maslow's hierarchy of basic needs, and only two of these six books had a fairly well-rounded discussion of love.

Maslow described two types of love, D-love and B-love. D-love (deficiency love, love need, selfish love) is found when the person feels the absence of others and hungers for affectionate relationships with other people. B-love (love for the being of another person, unheeding love, unselfish love) is a richer, ''higher,'' more valuable experience than D-love. B-lovers are less jealous or threatened and "create" their partners. Such love is welcomed into consciousness and enjoyed without end.

As Christians, we can say that B-love and agape love are descriptions of the image of God in humans. This love is in itself a motivation. It is what motivated God to send his Son into the world to redeem us (John 3:16), and he expects us, created in his image, to show this kind of love toward others (John 13:34). Missionaries must help the people they serve develop this kind of motivation in their lives. Our love is to be like God's love, not only in loving our friends, but our enemies as well.

Maslow said he found an inner nature that was good (perhaps neutral, but certainly not evil) but was not a strong and overpowering force. Even though it was denied and suppressed, it persisted and forever pressed for actualization. We can see this as the image of God remaining in us and wanting to be realized. We must encourage this growth motivation in our counselees and not just be content with solving their most pressing problems.

Loneliness. Maslow noted that people need to feel like they belonged to a group which cared for them. From a Christian perspective we are all a part of the body of Christ, the church. Paul, an early missionary, wrote to several early churches emphasizing that though Christians have different gifts, they are all one body and each member belongs to all the others (Romans 12:4-8; 1 Corinthians 12:1-31; Ephesians 4:11-13).

Unfortunately, sometimes missionaries know that they are a part of this body, but they do not feel like they are—they feel lonely. This loneliness may occur when they are in their host country, and few from their own culture are there to make them feel they belong. It also may occur when they return home, and no one seems to understand.

You may be one of these lonely missionaries. People around you are friendly and greet you with a smile. However, you find it difficult, seemingly impossible, to have any really meaningful interaction with others. You would like to meet new people and make deep friendships, but you just can’t bring yourself to take part in social activities to make friends.

Feeling unloved and unwanted, you are lonely. But how could you be lonely when there are people all around you? Isn’t God always with you so that you will not be lonely? Can missionaries be lonely? What can you do?

How can I be lonely? You are certainly not alone if you live in a city of millions of people. However, loneliness has nothing to do with being alone; it has to do with relationships. If you live in a village of a hundred people, you are much less likely to be lonely than if you live in a city of a million people. You are likely to know the names of everyone you meet in that village, but you may never meet anyone you know in that city.

You may be relatively new to the culture in which you live so that you find it difficult to have meaningful relationships with the nationals. You have not yet internalized enough of the culture to feel at ease with close relationships in it. Or you may have been in that culture for many years, even the leader of your group, and still be lonely. Being the leader changes your relationships with everyone in the group and it is “lonely at the top.”

Can God’s people be lonely? You may think, “Isn’t God with me everywhere? I’m part of the family of God so how can I be lonely?” God is with you everywhere, but you need human relationships as well. You are part of God’s family, but you may still not have the deep friendships you desire with other members of his family. You can still be lonely. Here are some examples.

· Adam. Even before sin entered humanity, God noted that it was not good for Adam to be alone, so God created Eve as a companion with whom Adam could be in relationship (Genesis 2).

· David. In the Psalms David said, “My friends and companions avoid me…my neighbors stay far away” (31:11), and “look to my right and see; no one is concerned for me” (142:4).

Do other missionaries feel this way? Everyone feels lonely at times, and missionaries are no exception. Living in a strange culture away from family and friends, most people feel lonely.

Near the end of his second letter to Timothy, Paul (a veteran missionary) wrote about several things that made him feel lonely.

· Demas, because he loved this world, has deserted me (2 Timothy 4:10).

· Crescens has gone to Galatia (2 Timothy 4:10).

· Titus (has gone) to Dalmatia (2 Timothy 4:10).

· At my first defense, no one came to my support, but everyone deserted me (2 Timothy 4:16).

What causes loneliness? Loneliness is common because it has so many causes. These causes may be found in your situation or within you. Here are some possible causes.

· Your moving. Part of being a missionary is moving from one place to another, either reentering your passport culture repeatedly or moving from one culture to another.

· Friends moving. If you do not move, other people from your agency are likely to. Expatriates are constantly on the move.

· Away from family and friends. Part of working cross-culturally is living in a place far from acquaintances in your past.

· Expectations not met. Perhaps you had heard how friendly people were in your host culture, but you find them quite distant.

· Rejected. You may not be accepted by the people you came to serve and feel rejected even by people serving in your agency.

· Discriminated against. You came to serve, but you find that political or social forces in your host country discriminate against you because of your passport country, your race, or your religion.

· Surface relationships. 1. You long to share deeply with others, but you are not able to find anyone in your agency or in your host culture who wants to do so.

· Surface relationships. 2. You do not want to become too close to anyone because you know that either they or you will be moving soon.

· Lack of social skills. You do not understand how to interact well in your host culture—or maybe your passport one.

What can you do to get over loneliness? The good news about loneliness is that you CAN take steps yourself to get over it. It is the only “disorder” that can be cured by adding two or more cases together! However, the more lonely you feel, the harder it is to take the steps needed, so remember that it takes time, effort, and commitment. You may need the help of a counselor to begin to take those steps.

Basically what you want to do is to find the cause (perhaps from the ones listed above) and then do things to counteract that cause. You may have to make changes in your situation or changes in yourself. Do not wait for your feelings of loneliness to go away—act first, and the change in feelings will come later. Here are some suggestions.

· Look for ways to get involved with people around you, such as eating with them, sitting near them, exercising with them.

· Put yourself in situations where you will meet new people, such as joining a club, attending a new church and doing volunteer work with others.

· Develop your social skills, practice getting to know others, and become vulnerable enough to let people know you.

· Do not assume new relationships will be the same as old ones. Look at each new person from a new perspective.

· Respond to others and their interests, but do not pretend to be interested in something you are not. People will sense that.

Here is a point to consider. Modern communication technology, such as e-mail, instant messaging, webcams, VoIP, and low international phone rates has resulted in some people becoming so interested in maintaining old relationships that they fail to build new ones. These distant relationships may make us think that we do not need intimate face-to-face relationships. This is not the case. Even though you may be able to hear and even see the person, it is not the same as interacting with a real person. Trying to maintain such a relationship is often not satisfying and may result in not developing adequate relationships with others. For more information about loneliness see http://www.missionarycare.com/brochures/br_loneliness.htm.

Sins of the Spirit

Many of the physiological motives are involved in what have been called the “sins of the flesh.” These are primarily sins actually committed by the body, such as eating too much or having sexual relations with someone other than one’s spouse. They are external and may be observed by someone other than the person committing them.

Sins involving cognitive motives are more covert than overt. They are more what we would call the sins of the spirit than the sins of the flesh. They are less likely to be frowned upon, even by Christians, because they are less obvious and more widely practiced. We must remember that the Bible deals not only with stealing, but also with coveting; not only with murder, but also with anger; not only with adultery, but also with lust. Although we feel more comfortable condemning the sins of the flesh, we must also deal with the sins of the spirit.

An excellent list of these sins is the traditional list of the seven cardinal or seven deadly sins. In the 1970s Henry Fairlie wrote a book about their manifestation today, noting that all of them are demonstrations of love that has gone wrong. Although it is natural for humans to love what pleases them, in sin this love is misplaced, weakened, or distorted. Pride, envy, and anger are sins of perverted love, love directed in a false manner toward oneself. Sloth is a defective love because it is not given in a proper measure. Greed, gluttony, and lust are sins of excessive love in that they interrupt one's capacity to love other deserving objects. Each of the seven deadly sins as expressed in life today.

Pride. Pride is not reasonable and justified self-esteem, but an overwhelming opinion of one's own qualities. Near-synonyms include words such as vanity, conceit, haughtiness, egotism, arrogance, boastfulness, selfishness, and self-glorification. Pride, however, may not be expressed in such nasty ways. It may be expressed in our self-righteousness or even in our "humility."

Pride has been made more acceptable in the individualism and achievement orientation of our culture. Rather than emphasizing cooperation and the good of the group, we emphasize competition and the rank of the individual in the group. Pride may be expressed in having things others do not, appearing better than others, or knowing things others do not. Pride may express itself in racism, saying that one's race, and therefore oneself, is better then other races. As missionaries work with others, they must be alert for signs of pride and deal with it.

Envy. Envy grows out of coveting and being unable to have the desired object. Envy is more than just coveting what another person has. It is not being able to have it because it is under the control of another. No one easily confesses to envy because it seems to be the nastiest and meanest of the sins. Furthermore, it can never bring gratification--no enjoyment, only endless self-torment as its appetite increases. Envy only makes us dissatisfied with the unique gifts/talents God has given us!

Envy assumes that everyone should be able to do, experience, and enjoy everything anyone else can do, experience, or enjoy. Not only must we be able to read poetry, we must be able to write it, so we take courses in "creative writing'' even though we have no creativity. We take courses in "self-expression" even though we have no artistic talent. Then when we do not do well, we take revenge. We destroy the rules of poetry and call ourselves poets, or we make a noise and call ourselves musicians. Envy is not merely grieving because of another's good, but also wanting to pull the other person down. This leads to resentment, backbiting, spite, and accusation. We should develop the talents we have but not expect to be "all-talented."

Anger. Anger arises as a defense of ourselves in situations where we lose esteem. It is the response to humiliation. Our voices rise, eyes blaze, bodies stiffen, fingers point, and feet stamp. In more ''primitive'' times objects were thrown, but now it is words that are hurled. Unfortunately, words may do more permanent damage than physical objects. Anger leaves a residue of hatred and a desire for revenge in the person who gets hit with it.

Christians have had great difficulty in handling anger because the Bible at times gives it unqualified acceptance and at other times gives it qualified acceptance. Some have concluded that anger is justifiable as a reflection of God's anger at sin and human suffering, but that it is not justifiable if it is a response to personal offense. Often this is the case. Others have argued that since God's anger is personal and is aroused by people, humans must have the same quality. When affected by sins of oppression, we become angry in the way that God does. However, they note that we are not to take vengeance, for that is God's place. Others have disagreed, saying that anger as a result of personal offense finds no justification in Scripture. God is holy, so opposition to his will is sin, but humans are tainted by the Fall, and opposition to their will is not sin.

Sloth. Slothfulness is very difficult to define because it is the extreme of idleness and laziness. The Latin term acedia can be translated "without care." Physical sloth is an indifference to work, with increased laziness, idleness, and indolence. Mental sloth is a lack of feeling, boredom, apathy, and lack of caring. Spiritual sloth is an indifference to our duties to God. It is described by terms such as indifference, apathy, despair, faintheartedness, and desirelessness. The slothful person has no purpose, cares for nothing, enjoys nothing, hates nothing, lives for nothing, believes in nothing, interferes with nothing, and seeks to know nothing.

Unfortunately, slothfulness is difficult to recognize because it has become so much the norm. At one time people took pride in their work, but now one hears such phrases as "minimum work for minimum pay," and society places social sanctions against anyone who produces too much. We now have more leisure time than any other generation, but this has led to boredom rather than growth. In every role and occupation we find people who do not care.

Greed. Greed refers to an inordinate desire, an insatiable longing to possess something. We usually think of it in terms of money, in terms of the miser counting his gold, running his hands through the coins and embracing the piles of money. However, greed is the love of possessing anything, and is a sin common in the middle class. Most of the merchandise we find in boutiques and shopping malls no one really needs. We have been affected by advertising so that we come to the point where we just "have to have'' some given item. Then, the more we get, the more we want.

The sin of covetousness is mentioned in the Ten Commandments. The apostle Paul called the love of money (greed) the root of all evil. The most insidious thing about greed is that it can never be satisfied. We always need just a little bit more. As our incomes and free time increase, we typically give a smaller and smaller proportion of them to the Lord. We neglect our families for greed, saying we are laboring to get more money for them. Success is usually defined in terms of money.

Gluttony. Gluttons are those who exhibit an almost insatiable desire and great capacity for engorgement. Gluttony is usually associated with eating but does not need to be restricted to this alone. We sometimes use the phrases "a glutton for punishment" or "a glutton for work'' to describe someone with an insatiable desire for these things. However, here we will concentrate on gluttony in terms of food.

We typically think of gluttons as fat people whose whole life is ordered around food. However, gluttony can also be found in many other people, if we think of it as an inordinate interest in food. Obsessive dieters may be just as gluttonous as obese persons. Dieters who constantly think about food, gaze at it in the refrigerator, talk of little else, and hurry to the kitchen to eat the carefully measured cottage cheese are also gluttons. The health food addicts may be just as gluttonous if their whole life revolves around food. They may talk of little other than the dangers of food additives or the wholesomeness of sunflower seeds. This consuming interest in food is disproportionate and unnatural, a form of gluttony just as much as overeating.

Lust. Lust is an overpowering appetite or craving for something, usually associated with a great yearning for sex. This is, of course, associated with sexual motivation discussed earlier in this chapter. As we saw, lust may express itself in actual immoral sexual behavior, and we must deal with that.

However, we must also deal with the lust which is expressed in nothing more than fantasy. For example, a "holy man'' came down from his platform and said that he had not looked upon a woman in thirty years. Since that was the first thing he said, it is logical to assume that women were the major topic of his thought life for those thirty years. People may never express the lustful thoughts in overt behaviorbut be just as consumed by them as those engaging in adultery or homosexual relations.

Fruit of the Spirit

Living for Christ should result in the fruit of the spirit, rather than the sins of the spirit, being found in our lives. Although they do not perfectly correspond, there is a great similarity between the fruit of the spirit listed in Galatians 5, the attributes of God considered in Chapter 2 of this book, and the characteristics of self-actualizing people considered earlier in this chapter. From our Christian perspective, we do not actualize ourselves, but God actualizes us as we mature. We become more like him. Furthermore, the fruit of the spirit is, in many cases, the opposite of the sins of the spirit. Galations 5 lists nine characteristics of the fruit of the spirit..

Love. As we have already seen, God is love. He sent his son because he loved us, and Christ told us to love each other as he loved us. Maslow found B-love and agape love in the individuals he studied. He found people becoming more God-like. Love is the opposite of sloth. Although we usually think of slothfulness as laziness, we saw that its essence is in not caring, not caring about anything. Love is the opposite of this. It is unselfish caring for the other person.

Joy. Although we seem to miss this attribute of God, he is a joyful God. Jesus said that he wanted his own joy to be in us that our joy might be full. Maslow found this characteristic in his self-actualizing people in what he called playfulness. In fact, joy was one of the terms he used to define it, along with fun, amusement, gaiety, humor, and exuberance.

Peace. God is a God of peace. Jesus said that he had told us certain things that we might have peace, and that he had given his peace to us. Maslow called this attribute completion, which is roughly synonymous with fulfillment, finality or a feeling of "it is finished.'' Peace is the opposite of envy. People who want something another person has can never be at peace with themselves.

Patience. All of us have experienced God's patience. Even when we fail him he gives us a second chance, then a third, a fourth, and so forth. We are likewise told to be patient with others and in waiting for Christ's return.

Kindness. God is a God of kindness, for He is merciful to us, kind to us even when we do not deserve it. We are repeatedly told to be kind to others. Although Maslow does not use the term kindness in his list of Being values, he does use "benevolence" in describing goodness. Kindness is the opposite of greed. Greed has its essence in getting for oneself, while kindness is in giving to others.

Goodness. The term goodness appears in all three lists. God is described in the Bible as being good. Maslow found goodness in the self-actualizing people he studied. Goodness is the opposite of pride, or the realization of pride. Pride strongly emphasizes self-righteousness, while goodness is righteousness in itself .

Faithfulness. As we saw previously, God is a faithful God. He keeps his covenants and expects us to keep ours. Maslow found justice in those he studied, and he defined justice in terms of fairness and "oughtness." If lust is defined in terms of adulterous thoughts, faithfulness is its opposite, and we are to be faithful in keeping our agreements.

Gentleness. In Psalm 18, David talks about God's gentleness. God is described as a shepherd who gently leads his people. The apostle Paul talked about the gentleness of Christ. Gentleness is the opposite of anger, at least of the expression of anger.

Self-control. Of course, God has self-control. He cannot lose control. Furthermore, he is in control of everything else. Maslow found something closely related to this when he talked about self-sufficiency, although we would see this as self-control taken too far. Self-control is the opposite of gluttony. Gluttons are controlled by their appetites rather than controlling their appetites.

For further information about specific topics in cognitive motivation click on the following links to parts of Chapter 9 in Dewey’s on-line text.

Conclusion

Human beings have many motives that arouse and direct behavior. Some of these motives are much like those of animals, and other motives are in the God-like similarities of humans to God. However, motives in both categories may lead to sinful behavior ranging from the sins of the flesh to the sins of the spirit.